Activity Budgeting of Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta, Zimmerman 1780) Along Altitudinal Gradient in Nepal
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55863/ijees.2024.0063Keywords:
Dhankuta, Foraging, SeasonsAbstract
The activity budgets of Rhesus monkey vary depending on altitude, topography, climate, food resource, vegetation and other factors. This study was done to compare the activity budget of Rhesus monkey along the altitudinal gradient of Eastern Nepal from 93 meters to 1250 meters above from sea level for a year from May 2022 to April 2023. We followed scan sampling method to record the behavioural activities. We found there was no relation between the altitude of habitat and composition of population of monkey (df= 8, χ2= 0.318, p<0.05). Foraging and moving were found increasing with increase of altitude but grooming was decreasing. The time spent by monkey for different activities was strongly related to changing seasons in habitats of different altitude. There was powerfully built relation of activities with the altitude of habitat on the annual analysis (df = 14, F = 140.73, p value= 9.57E-09). The time budgeting was strongly related with the part of diurnal time Plain (r =0.33), Churia (r = 0.75) and Mahabharat (r= 0.95). The places for foraging, moving, grooming, inactive and fighting were varied in different altitude. Our study gives crucial information for the sustainable management of this species.
References
Adhikari, R. 2023. Ethogram and time budgeting of Rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann 1780) in Ramdhuni forest, Nepal. Journal of Research and Development, 6(01), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.3126/jrdn.v6i01.55238.
Adhikari, R.K. and Chalise, M.K. 2014. General behavior of Assamese monkey (Macaca assamansis, McClelland, 1840) at upper Marsyangdi area, Lamjung, Nepal. Special issue DNPWC-2071, 84-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jist.v22i1.17761.
Adhikari, K., Khanal, L. and Chalise, M.K. 2018. Status and effects of food provisioning on ecology of Assamese monkey (Macaca assamensis) in Ramdi area of Palpa, Nepal. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology, 22(2), 183-190. https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v22i2.19611.
Alami, A.E., Lavieren, E.V., Rachida, A. and Chait, A. 2012. Differences in activity budgets and diet between semiprovisioned and wild-feeding groups of the endangered Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) in the central High Atlas Mountains of Morocco. American Journal of Primatology, 74, 210-216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.21989.
Altmann, J. 1974. Observational studies of behavior: sampling methods. Behavior, 49, 227-265. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4533591.
Arseneau, T.J.M., Taucher, A.L., van Schaik, C.P. and Willems, E.P. 2015. Male monkeys fight in between-group conflicts as protective parents and reluctant recruits. Animal Behaviour, 110, 39-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.09.006.
Borgeaud, C., Jankowiak, B., Aellen, M., Dunbar, R. I. and Bshary, R. 2021. Vervet monkeys socialize more when time budget constraints are experimentally reduced. Ethology, 127(9), 682-696. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.13205.
Chalise, M.K. 1995. Comparative study of feeding ecology and behavior of male and female langurs (Presbytis entellus). Ph.D. Thesis. IOST Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Chalise, M.K. 2003. Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) in Nepal. Primate Conservation,19,99-10.https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar.
Chalise, M.K. 2005. New characters of Assamese monkeys in Nepal. pp. 25. In: Abstract for the National Conference on Animal Taxonomy–Emerging Trends, Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi-682013 Kerela, India. (January 14-15). Abstract Book. P (Vol. 25).
Chalise, M.K., Ogawa, H. and Pandey, B. 2013. Assamese monkeys in Nagarjun forest of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Tribhuvan University Journal, 28, 81-190. doI:10.3126/tuj.v28i1-2.26240
Dhankuta Municipality. 2022. https://dhankutamun.gov.np/en. Accessed on 12th June, 2023.
Dharan Municipality. 2022. https://dharanmun.gov.np/en. Accessed on 12th June, 2023.
Djego-Djossou, S., Koné, I., Fandohan, A.B., Djègo, J.G., Huynen, M.C and Sinsin, B. 2015. Habitat use by white-thighed colobus in the Kikélé Sacred Forest: Activity budget, feeding ecology and selection of sleeping trees. Primate Conservation, 29, 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.029.0106.
Ganguly, I. and Chauhan, N.S. 2018. Dietary preference and feeding patterns of the urban Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) in Asola-Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary in India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 10(15), 12907-12915. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.4347.10.15.12907-12915
Ghimire, K. and Chalise, M.K. 2021. Activity pattern and habitat association of Assamese macaques Macaca assamensis McClelland, 1840 in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Zoology, 5(2), 51-61. https://doi.org/10.3126/njz.v5i2.42032
Ghimire, S.C. 2023. Ecology and feeding behavior of Assamese monkeys (Macaca assamensis) in Mid-Hills of Nepal (Doctoral dissertation), Tribuvan University Kathmandu Nepal. https://elibrary.tucl.edu.np/handle/123456789/17409
Gupta, A.K. 2005. Dietary differences between two groups of Phayre’s langur Trachypithecus phayrei in Tripura, India: Responses to food abundances and human disturbance. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102, 3-9. https://archive.org/details/biostor-151104.
Hambali, K., Ismail, A. and Md-Zain, B.M. 2012. Daily activity budget of longtailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Kuala Selangor Nature Park. International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences,12(4),47-52.https://www.researchgate. net/publication/280507637.
Hasan, M.K., Aziz, M.A., Alam, S.R., Kawamoto, Y., Jones-Engel, L., Kyes, R.C. and Feeroz, M.M. 2013. Distribution of Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh: Inter-population variation in group size and composition. Primate Conservation, 26(1),125-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1896/052.026.0103
Jaman, M.F. and Huffman, M.A. 2008. Enclosure environment affects the activity budgets of captive Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata). American Journal of Primatology, 70, 1133-1144.
Jaman, F.M. and Huffman, M.A. 2013. The effect of urban and rural habitats and resource type on activity budgets of commensal Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh. Primates 54(1), 49-59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329- 012-0330-6.
Jarman, P.V. and Jarman, P.J. 1973. Daily activity of Impala. East African Wildlife Journal, 11, 75-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00074.x
Jingfors, K.T. 1980. Habit relationships and activity patterns of a reintroduced musk ox population, M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, USA. http://hdl.handle.net/11122/7997
Khan, M.H. 2017. Comparative activity pattern and feeding behaviour of Capped Langur (Trachypithecus pileatus) and Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) in Madhupur National Park of Bangladesh. Jahangirnagar University. Journal of Biological Sciences, 6(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3329/jujbs.v6i1.33726.
Khatiwada, S., Paudel, P.K., Chalise, M.K and Ogawa, H. 2020. Comparative ecological and behavioral study of Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Primates, 61, 603-621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-020-00810-9
Koirala, S. and Chalise, M.K. 2014. Feeding Ecology of Assamese Macaque (Macaca assamensis) in Nagarjun Forest of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Zoology, 21, 31-38. . Retrieved from https://www.cdztu.edu.np/njz/index.php/NJZ/article/view/46
Kinap, N.M., Nagy-Reis, M., Bobrowiec, P.E.D., Gordo, M. and Spironello, W.R. 2021. Influence of topography gradient and seasonality on primate habitat use in Central Amazonia. Mammalian Biology, 101, 251-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42991-021-00108-3
Korstjens, A.H., Lehmann, J. and Dunbar, R.I.M. 2010. Resting time as an ecological constraint on primate biogeography. Animal Behaviour, 79(2), 361-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.11.012
Kraus, J.B. and Strier, K.B. 2022. Geographic, climatic, and phylogenetic drivers of variation in colobine activity budgets. Primates, 63(6), 647-658. 10.1007/s10329-022-01015-y
Leca, J.B., Gunst, N. and Huffman, M.A. 2008. Food provisioning and stone handling tradition in Japanese macaques: A compar-ative study of ten troops. American Journal Primatology,70(8), 803-813. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20551
Li, Y., Ma, G., Zhou, Q. and Huang, Z. 2020. Seasonal variation in activity budget of Assamese macaques in limestone forest of Southwest Guangxi, China. Folia Primatologica, 91(5), 495-511.
Mangalam, M. and Singh, M. 2013. Flexibility in food extraction techniques in urban free-ranging Bonnet Macaques, Macaca radiata. Plos one, 8(12), e85497. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085497.
Manning, A. and Dawkins, M.S. 1998. An introduction to animal behaviour. Cambridge University Press. http://www.cambridge.org/9781107000162.
Mattison, J.A., Colman, R.J., Beasley, T.M., Allison, D.B., Kemnitz, J.W., Roth, G.S. and Anderson, R.M. 2017. Caloric restriction improves health and survival of Rhesus monkeys. Nature Communications, 8(1),14063. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14063.
McHugh, T. 1958. Social behaviour of the American buffalo (Bison bison bison). Journal of Zoologica, 43(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.5962/p.206661.
Milton, K. 1998. Physiological ecology of howlers (Alouatta): Energetic and digestive considerations and comparison with the Colobinae. International Journal of Primatology,19, 513-548. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:10203645 23213.
Montilla, S.O., Mopán-Chilito, A.M., Murcia, L.N.S., Triana, J.D.M., Ruiz, O.M.C., Montoya-Cepeda, J. and Link, A. 2021. Activity patterns, diet and home range of night monkeys (Aotus griseimembra and Aotus lemurinus) in tropical lowland and mountain forests of central Colombia. International Journal of Primatology, 42, 130-153. 10.1007/s10764-020-00192-1
Neha, S.A., Hasan, M.A.U., Baki, M.A. and Sehrin, S. 2021. Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) in a human-modified landscape: population, activity budget, and societal perceptions in Bangladesh. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 13(9), 19203-19299. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.7073.13.9.19203-19211.
Neville, M.K. 1968. Ecology and activity of Himalayan foothill Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Ecology, 49(1), 110-123. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933566
Nurliani, A., Rezeki, A., Istiqomah, S. and Hoesain, F.F. 2022. Daily behavioral activities of the proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus Wurmb) in the Bekantan Rescue Center, Sahabat Bekantan Indonesia foundation. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 976(1), p. 012013). 10.1088/1755-1315/976/1/012013.
Pandey, B.P. and Chalise, M.K. 2015. General ecology and time budgeting for Assamese Monkey (Macaca assamensis) in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Biodiversity Conservation Efforts in Nepal, 57. https://dnpwc.gov.np/media/files/Special_Bulletin_2072.pdf
Paudel, P.K. and Chalise, M.K. 2017. General behavior and vegetation associated with the habitats of Assamese monkey (Macaca assamensis McClelland, 1840) along Kaligandaki river bank, western Nepal. Journal of Institute of Science and Technology, 22(1), 110-119. https://doi.org/10.3126/jist.v22i1.17761.
Paudel, P.K. and Chalise, M.K. 2018. Population status and distribution of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) in Kaligandaki river basin of Baglung and Parbat districts, Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum, 30, 234-243. https://doi.org/10.3126/jnhm.v30i0.27571.
Paudel, M. 2020. Activity Patterns and Habitat Hanuman Langur (Semnopithecus entellus Dufresne, 1779) in Sahid Lakhan Rural Municipality, Gorkha, Nepal. M.Sc. dissertation, Department of Zoology. https://elibrary.tucl.edu.np/handle/123456789/10000
Phillips, K.A. and Abercrombie, C.L. 2003. Distribution and conservation status of the primates of Trinidad. Primate Conservation, 19, 19-22.
Poulsen, J.R., Clark, C.J. and Smith, T.B. 2001. Seasonal variation in the feeding ecology of the greycheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena) in Cameroon. American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists, 54(2), 91-105. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1015.
Ramdhuni Municipality. 2022. https://ramdhunimun.gov.np/en. Accessed on12th June,2023.
Roonwal, M.L. and Mohnot, S.M. 1977. Primates of South Asia, Ecology, Sociology and Behavior. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London, England. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674432215
Sarkar, P., Srivastava, A., Dasgupta, S. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. 2012. Activity profile of free ranging forest groupof Assamese macaque. The Clarion, 1, 59-67. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344513023.
Shanee, S. and Shanee, N. 2011. Activity budget and behavioural patterns of freeranging yellow-tailed woolly monkeys Oreonax flavicauda (Mammalia: Primates), at La Esperanza, Northeastern Peru. Contributions to Zoology, 80(4), 269-277. https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-08004004.
Sikerwal, V., Mishra, R.C. and Kumar, A. 2023. Daily activities and time budget schedule performed by Rhesus Monkey Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann, 1780). Journal of Experiment Zoology, 26 (1). https://doi.org/10.51470/jez.2023.26.1.339
Southwick, C.H., Beg, M.A. and Siddiqi, M.R. 1961. A population survey of rhesus monkeys in villages, towns and temples of northern India. Ecology, 42, 538-547. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933499.
SouzaAlves, J.P., Chagas, R.R., Santana, M.M., Boyle, S.A. and Bezerra, B.M. 2021. Food availability, plant diversity, and vegetation structure drive behavioral and ecological variation in Endangered CoimbraFilho’s titi monkeys. American Journal of Primatology, 83(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23237.
Srivastava, A. 1999. Primates of Northeast India, Megadiversity Press, Bikaner, Rajasthan, 208 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.107.
Stanton, L.A., Sullivan, M.S. and Fazio, J.M.2015. A standardized ethogram for the felidae: A tool for behavioral researchers. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 173, 3-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.04.001.
Tuyisingize, D., Eckardt, W., Caillaud, D. and Kaplin, B.A. 2022. High flexibility in diet and ranging patterns in two Golden monkey (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) populations in Rwanda. American Journal of Primatology, 84(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23347.
Wong, S.T., Saj, T.L. and Sicotte, P. 2006. Comparison of habitat quality and diet of Colobus vellerosus in forest fragments in Ghana. Primates, 47, 365-373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10329-006-0186-8.
Xu, A., Liu, C., Wan, Y., Bai, Y. and Li, Z. 2021. Monkeys fight more in polluted air. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 654. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80002-z
Zhou, Q.H., Wei, H., Tang, H.X., Huang, Z.G., Krzton, A. and Huang, C.M. 2014. Niche separation of sympatric macaques, Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta, in limestone habitats of Nonggang, China. Primates, 55, 125-137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10329-013-0385-z
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Ram Chandra Adhikari, Kaushik Chakraborty
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
